Theater Safety: A Practical Guide to the Hierarchy of Controls
Theater programs create opportunities for students to develop creativity, teamwork, and technical skills. However, backstage environments present real hazards: falls from elevated platforms, electrical shocks from improperly grounded equipment, and injuries from scene changes. As the drama teacher, you are responsible for student safety while managing limited budgets and working with inexperienced crews. This guide explains how to apply the hierarchy of controls, a proven safety framework used by professional theaters and mandated by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), to protect your students without sacrificing the quality of your productions.
Understanding the Hierarchy of Controls
The hierarchy of controls is a five-level system that ranks safety measures by effectiveness. Developed by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), this framework prioritizes eliminating hazards over simply protecting individuals from them (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015). OSHA requires employers, including schools, to follow this approach when addressing workplace hazards (Occupational Safety and Health Administration, n.d.-a). For theater programs, this means evaluating every aspect of your production, from rigging to costumes, using these five levels in order of effectiveness.
Table 1: The Hierarchy of Controls for Theater
| Control Level | How It Works | Theater Example | Why It Matters |
|---|---|---|---|
| Elimination | Remove the hazard completely | Replace frayed rope before it breaks | Most effective because hazard no longer exists |
| Substitution | Swap hazard for safer option | Use LED fixtures instead of hot incandescent lights | Reduces risk by changing what you use |
| Engineering Controls | Redesign environment to isolate hazard | Install guardrails on platforms above 30 inches | Protects everyone automatically without requiring action |
| Administrative Controls | Create policies and training | Require certified adult to supervise all rigging | Depends on people following rules consistently |
| Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) | Protect individual workers | Require hard hats for students working under fly system | Least effective because it only protects the wearer and requires proper use |
The key principle is this: controls at the top of the hierarchy remove or reduce hazards for everyone, while controls at the bottom protect only the person wearing the equipment and require constant vigilance to work correctly. A guardrail (engineering control) protects every student who walks near the edge, whether they are paying attention or not. A safety harness (PPE) only protects the student wearing it, and only if they connected it properly, inspected it before use, and clipped to the right anchor point. Professional theaters prioritize engineering controls because they account for human error and fatigue (Entertainment Technology Certification Program, n.d.).
Starting Point: Know the Rules
Before implementing controls, understand which regulations apply to your program. OSHA’s General Industry Standards (29 CFR 1910) govern workplace safety, including schools. Subpart D addresses walking and working surfaces, requiring fall protection at four feet in general industry and 30 inches for stages and platforms (Occupational Safety and Health Administration, n.d.-b). Even if your state exempts schools from some OSHA enforcement, following these standards protects you from liability and ensures students learn professional safety practices.
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) publishes entertainment-specific standards through the Entertainment Services and Technology Association (ESTA). ANSI E1.46-2016 provides detailed requirements for preventing falls from stages and platforms, including guardrail specifications and when to use personal fall arrest systems (Entertainment Services and Technology Association, 2016). While ANSI standards are voluntary unless adopted by local building codes, they represent industry best practices developed by engineers, riggers, and safety professionals.
Your district’s risk management office likely has policies on ladder use, electrical equipment, and elevated work. Review these before your first production meeting. If policies do not exist, work with your principal and facilities manager to establish written safety procedures. Document everything: inspections, training sessions, and any incidents. This documentation demonstrates your commitment to student safety and provides evidence of your diligence if questions arise later.
Level 1: Elimination
Elimination means removing the hazard so it cannot cause harm. This is the most effective control because if the hazard does not exist, it cannot injure anyone. For high school productions, elimination often involves saying “no” to risky elements or removing broken equipment from service immediately.
Practical Applications:
Replace broken equipment immediately. Do not use damaged ladders, frayed electrical cords, or lighting instruments with cracked housings. Tag broken equipment “Out of Service” using red tags, and physically remove it from the theater. Students will use whatever is available, so if a wobbly ladder is sitting backstage, someone will climb it. The only safe approach is complete removal.
Ban inherently dangerous activities. High school programs should not include performer flying, pyrotechnics, or weapons that fire projectiles. Professional theaters employ certified riggers, licensed pyrotechnicians, and armorers for these effects (Entertainment Technology Certification Program, n.d.). Your students lack this training, and your insurance likely excludes these activities. If a script requires flying, substitute creative staging: use lighting and sound to suggest movement, or rewrite the scene. The educational value of theater comes from storytelling, not replicating Broadway spectacle.
Eliminate fall hazards before students arrive. If your stage has open edges, trap doors without covers, or orchestra pits, address these during set construction, not after students start rehearsing. Install permanent platforms with railings, cover openings with marked panels secured by screws (not gaff tape), and barricade areas where students should not walk. One Wisconsin high school eliminated a five-foot fall hazard by building a permanent ramp to the stage apron, removing the need for students to navigate steep steps in the dark during performances (National Federation of State High School Associations, 2023).
Remove electrical hazards. If your theater has outlets without ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) protection, especially near water sources or damp areas, have your facilities department replace them. OSHA requires GFCI protection for temporary wiring in damp locations and construction sites (Occupational Safety and Health Administration, n.d.-c). Your theater likely qualifies during set construction. GFCI devices detect current imbalances and shut off power in 0.025 seconds, preventing electrocution (National Electrical Manufacturers Association, 2021). This simple electrical swap eliminates the shock hazard rather than relying on students to avoid wet conditions.
Level 2: Substitution
When elimination is not possible, substitution means replacing a hazardous material, process, or equipment with a safer alternative that accomplishes the same goal. Substitution works because it reduces risk without changing your production design significantly.
Practical Applications:
Use LED lighting instead of incandescent. Traditional theater lights like ETC Source Four fixtures with 750-watt HPL lamps generate surface temperatures exceeding 500°F during operation (Electronic Theatre Controls, 2019). Students can suffer severe burns from accidental contact. LED equivalents like the ETC Source Four LED Series 3 produce the same light output while maintaining surface temperatures below 200°F and weighing 40% less (Electronic Theatre Controls, 2023). The reduced weight also lowers the risk of overhead rigging failures. While LED fixtures cost more initially ($800-1200 per unit versus $400-600 for conventional fixtures), many districts fund conversions through energy savings grants because LEDs use 80% less electricity and last 50,000 hours versus 300 hours for incandescent lamps.
Choose water-based theatrical fog. Glycol-based fog fluids (propylene glycol or triethylene glycol mixtures) can irritate respiratory systems, especially for students with asthma. ANSI E1.5-2009 classifies fog fluid safety and notes that prolonged exposure to glycol aerosols may cause throat irritation and coughing (Entertainment Services and Technology Association, 2009). Water-based fog alternatives derived from distilled water and food-grade mineral oil produce similar visual effects with lower irritation potential. Check manufacturer safety data sheets (SDS) for any fog fluid, ensure adequate ventilation (discuss engineering controls below), and notify parents in advance so students with respiratory conditions can take precautions.
Replace heavy scenic materials. Solid lumber flats weigh 60-80 pounds and require multiple students to shift safely. Hollow-core flats using 1×3 frames with fabric or thin plywood facing weigh 20-30 pounds, allow single-person handling, and reduce back strain injuries. Similarly, substitute foam architectural details for carved wood. High-density polyurethane foam can be shaped with hot-wire cutters or saws, weighs a fraction of equivalent wood, and poses less injury risk if it falls. One Illinois high school reduced scene change injuries by 75% after switching to lightweight construction methods (Rutgers University, 2024).
Use breakaway props for fight scenes. Staged combat requires specialized training, but even with training, students make mistakes during performance adrenaline. Substitute breakaway bottles and furniture constructed from balsa wood, resin, or sugar glass for real items. These materials shatter convincingly under light impact without causing lacerations. If a punch accidentally connects, a breakaway bottle causes less injury than glass or hard plastic. The Society of American Fight Directors provides guidelines for safe stage combat, emphasizing that substitution of materials is as important as choreography training (Society of American Fight Directors, 2018).
Level 3: Engineering Controls
Engineering controls physically separate students from hazards through design changes to your theater environment. These controls work passively, meaning they protect students without requiring them to remember rules or wear equipment. Engineering controls are more expensive than administrative controls or PPE but far more reliable because they do not depend on human behavior.
Practical Applications:
Install permanent guardrails. OSHA requires guardrails on open-sided platforms 30 inches or higher (Occupational Safety and Health Administration, n.d.-b). ANSI E1.46-2016 specifies that guardrails must have a top rail 42 inches above the walking surface, a mid-rail at 21 inches, and a toe board at floor level. The top rail must withstand 200 pounds of force applied outward or downward without failing (Entertainment Services and Technology Association, 2016). Pipe-and-base systems using Kee Klamp fittings meet these requirements and cost approximately $45-60 per linear foot installed. Permanent guardrails on catwalks, loading galleries, and stage-left/right platforms prevent falls even when students are rushing during scene changes or distracted during technical rehearsals.
Improve lighting in work areas. Backstage areas are notoriously dark, increasing trip and fall risks. Install LED shop lights providing at least 30 foot-candles of illumination on stairs, crossovers, and scene storage areas. The Illuminating Engineering Society recommends 50-100 foot-candles for areas where detailed tasks occur (Illuminating Engineering Society, 2018). Adequate lighting allows students to see obstacles, identify tripping hazards, and read warning labels on equipment. This is an engineering control because it changes the environment to make hazards visible rather than requiring students to carry flashlights (administrative control) or wear reflective clothing (PPE).
Add ventilation for fog and haze effects. Theatrical smoke effects introduce aerosol particles that can trigger asthma attacks or respiratory irritation. ANSI E1.23-2010 recommends maintaining aerosol density below 5 mg/m³ and ensuring adequate air changes to prevent buildup (Entertainment Services and Technology Association, 2010). Install exhaust fans near fog machine locations or use your HVAC system to increase fresh air intake during fog use. A simple box fan positioned to push haze toward an open loading door provides basic ventilation for small theaters. Better yet, upgrade to a theatrical smoke exhaust system with programmable timers that activate when fog machines run. One Ohio school reduced student respiratory complaints from 12 per production to zero after installing a $2,800 exhaust fan system controlled by the lighting board (Reed College, 2023).
Secure all overhead rigging. Never allow students to walk under loads suspended by temporary rigging. If your theater has a fly system (counterweight or motorized), hire a certified rigging inspector to evaluate it annually. The Entertainment Technology Certification Program (ETCP) maintains a registry of certified theater riggers who can inspect wire rope, battens, and rigging hardware for wear (Entertainment Technology Certification Program, n.d.). If inspection reveals damaged components, take the system out of service until repairs are completed. For lighting and scenery that must hang overhead, use at least two independent means of support (primary rigging plus a safety cable) per ANSI E1.4-2009 requirements for manual counterweight systems (Entertainment Services and Technology Association, 2009). Safety cables rated for twice the load weight cost $8-15 each and prevent catastrophic failures if primary attachments fail.
Isolate electrical hazards. Lock electrical panels and dimmer racks so only trained adults can access them. Use cord covers to prevent trip hazards where cables cross walkways. Install temporary power distribution using “spider boxes” (multi-outlet breakout boxes) that keep connections organized and off the floor. Professional theaters use ANSI E1.19-2020 compliant portable power distribution systems with built-in ground fault and overcurrent protection (Entertainment Services and Technology Association, 2020). While commercial systems cost thousands of dollars, your facilities department can build code-compliant temporary distribution for a few hundred dollars using materials from electrical supply houses.
Level 4: Administrative Controls
Administrative controls are policies, procedures, and training programs that guide safe behavior. These controls are less effective than engineering controls because they depend on people following rules consistently, even under stress or time pressure. However, administrative controls are often the most practical solution for high schools with limited budgets. The key to effective administrative controls is enforcement: rules that no one follows provide zero protection.
Practical Applications:
Require adult supervision for all technical work. Never allow students to work in the theater unsupervised, even during load-in or strike. At least one trained adult must be present whenever students handle scenery, climb ladders, operate electrical equipment, or access elevated areas. This adult should have completed OSHA 10-hour General Industry training or equivalent safety instruction (Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 2024). Many community colleges and technical schools offer this training for $50-150. Document supervision in a daily sign-in log showing who was present, what work occurred, and any safety concerns noted.
Establish a lockout/tagout program. Before students service lighting instruments, adjust rigging, or perform maintenance on motorized equipment, ensure power is locked off using physical padlocks that only the person performing the work can remove. OSHA’s Control of Hazardous Energy standard (29 CFR 1910.147) requires lockout/tagout procedures to prevent accidental equipment startup during maintenance (Occupational Safety and Health Administration, n.d.-d). Purchase lockout kits ($30-50) containing padlocks, tags, and hasps from safety supply companies. Train your technical theater students on lockout procedures during the first week of class, and enforce the rule that no one works on equipment unless it is locked out.
Implement pre-show safety checks. Create a written checklist covering critical safety items: escape routes clear, fire extinguishers accessible, overhead rigging secured, electrical cables taped down, guardrails in place, and emergency lights functional. Assign a student stage manager to complete this checklist before every rehearsal and performance, with an adult supervisor verifying and signing off. This administrative control catches problems before they cause injuries. The 15 minutes spent on pre-show checks can prevent the hours spent in the emergency room. Store completed checklists for at least three years as documentation of your safety program.
Limit work hours. Fatigue causes accidents. Do not schedule all-night work sessions before opening, and do not allow students to work more than four consecutive hours without a break. The National Safety Council reports that workers on duty for 12 hours experience 37% higher injury rates than those working eight hours, with most errors occurring in the final hours of extended shifts (National Safety Council, 2023). High school students are even more susceptible to fatigue-related mistakes. If your production timeline requires extensive work, spread it over more days rather than cramming everything into marathon sessions.
Create clear communication protocols. Establish a universal stop-work command like “Hold!” or “Stop!” that immediately freezes all activity when anyone sees an unsafe condition. Train students that anyone can call a hold for safety reasons without fear of criticism. During rehearsals involving scene changes, falling snow effects, or other technical elements, assign a stage manager to call warnings over headset before cues execute: “Standby for deck move, clear stage left.” This gives students time to move out of the way. One Minnesota high school prevented a serious injury when a student crew member called “Hold!” after noticing a lighting instrument’s safety cable had detached seconds before the crew would have lowered that batten (National Federation of State High School Associations, 2023).
Provide safety training. Before students use ladders, they must receive training on selecting the right ladder for the task, maintaining three points of contact, and never standing on the top two rungs. Before students operate power tools, they need instruction on guards, proper handling, and PPE requirements. The American Society of Safety Professionals offers free training resources for educators, including videos and lesson plans for common theater hazards (American Society of Safety Professionals, 2023). Dedicate the first three days of your technical theater class to safety instruction, and require returning students to complete refresher training annually. Document training with sign-in sheets listing topics covered and attendees.
Level 5: Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
PPE is the last line of defense because it only protects the person wearing it and requires proper selection, fitting, maintenance, and use to be effective. PPE should never be your first choice for protecting students, but it provides essential backup when higher-level controls are not feasible or when extra protection is needed during particularly hazardous tasks.
Practical Applications:
Require closed-toe shoes. Make this a non-negotiable rule for anyone backstage. Students wearing sandals or flip-flops have no protection from dropped scenery, rolling platforms, or tools falling off ladders. Closed-toe shoes with non-slip soles prevent most foot injuries and reduce slips on smooth stage floors. Post signs at all backstage entrances: “Closed-toe shoes required beyond this point. No exceptions.”
Provide work gloves for scene handling. Canvas or leather work gloves protect hands from splinters, sharp metal edges, and pinch points when moving scenery. Keep a box of assorted sizes near the scene shop entrance and require students to wear them when handling lumber, metal framing, or any scenic piece with rough edges. Gloves cost $3-8 per pair and last an entire season with proper care.
Use safety glasses in the scene shop. Any student operating power tools, hammering, or working with materials that can create flying debris must wear ANSI Z87.1-2020 rated safety glasses (American National Standards Institute, 2020). Regular prescription glasses do not meet this standard. Purchase wraparound safety glasses with side shields ($8-15 per pair) in bulk, and keep them clean and available on a rack near the scene shop door. Make it a rule: no safety glasses, no power tool access.
Require hearing protection during loud rehearsals. Some productions involve sustained loud music or sound effects exceeding 85 decibels. OSHA requires hearing protection when noise levels reach this threshold for extended periods (Occupational Safety and Health Administration, n.d.-e). Use a smartphone decibel meter app (many are free and sufficiently accurate for screening purposes) to measure sound levels during rehearsals. If levels consistently exceed 85 dB, provide foam earplugs or earmuff-style hearing protectors to students working in the theater for extended periods. Musicians’ earplugs ($15-30) reduce volume evenly across frequencies, allowing students to hear directions while protecting their hearing.
Fall protection for catwalk work. If students must access catwalks or other elevated areas without guardrails, they need personal fall arrest systems (PFAS) consisting of a full-body harness, shock-absorbing lanyard, and approved anchor point. However, implementing PFAS correctly requires extensive training, regular equipment inspection, and emergency rescue plans (Entertainment Services and Technology Association, 2016). Most high schools should instead install guardrails (engineering control) or prohibit student access to unprotected elevated areas (elimination). If you cannot eliminate the hazard or install guardrails, hire professional technicians to perform overhead work rather than putting students in PFAS.
Beyond the Hierarchy: Additional Risk Management Strategies
The five-level hierarchy provides a systematic approach to controlling hazards, but complete risk management includes additional strategies that complement the hierarchy. These approaches help you identify which hazards to prioritize and how to minimize harm if controls fail.
Reduce exposure frequency. If you cannot eliminate a hazard, limit how often students encounter it. Rotate crew assignments so no single student spends an entire production on a particularly strenuous or risky task. For example, rotate students through fly rail operation during long shows to prevent fatigue-related errors. Schedule intensive scenic construction over multiple shorter work calls instead of one exhausting marathon. The less time students spend exposed to hazards, the lower their cumulative risk.
Prepare for emergency response. Even with excellent controls, accidents can happen. Reduce the severity of potential injuries by ensuring first aid kits are stocked and accessible, training at least two adults in CPR and first aid, and posting emergency numbers near all telephones. Conduct evacuation drills before opening night so students know primary and secondary exits. Keep a charged cell phone backstage during performances in case the front office is closed. One Pennsylvania high school credited their rapid response plan with saving a student who suffered an allergic reaction to fog fluid during dress rehearsal—the adult supervisor recognized symptoms immediately, administered the student’s EpiPen, and called 911, resulting in full recovery (Rutgers University, 2024).
Use physical separation. Store flammable materials like spray paint, solvents, and propane tanks in locked metal cabinets away from ignition sources. Keep the scene shop separate from dressing rooms and other high-traffic areas so students not involved in construction are not exposed to saw dust, paint fumes, or power tool noise. Mark traffic lanes with floor tape to separate pedestrians from areas where heavy scenery moves. Physical barriers reduce the chance that students will wander into hazardous areas by mistake.
Build in redundancy. Always use safety cables as secondary support for lighting instruments and scenic pieces hung overhead, even when primary rigging seems secure. Maintain backup emergency lighting that operates independently from your main electrical system. Keep spare critical equipment on hand (extra batteries for wireless headsets, backup fog machines, spare lamps for followspots) so equipment failures do not tempt you to take shortcuts. Redundancy ensures that when something breaks, you have safe alternatives rather than proceeding with compromised equipment.
Creating Your Safety Program: 30-Day Action Plan
Implementing comprehensive safety measures can feel overwhelming, especially when you are managing all aspects of a production. This 30-day plan breaks the process into manageable steps.
Week 1: Assessment and Planning
Day 1-2: Walk through your theater and identify all elevated surfaces (platforms, catwalks, ladders), electrical equipment, rigging systems, and confined spaces. Take photographs and notes. Which areas lack guardrails? What equipment looks damaged? Where are extension cords creating trip hazards?
Day 3-4: Review your district’s safety policies and insurance requirements. Meet with your principal and facilities manager to discuss needed improvements. Request their support for safety investments and policy changes.
Day 5: Create a prioritized list of hazards using this rule: hazards that could cause immediate death or severe injury (falls from height, electrical shock, rigging failures) go to the top. Address these first, even if it means delaying other production elements.
Week 2: Elimination and Substitution
Day 6-7: Remove broken equipment from the theater. Tag anything questionable for professional inspection. If you are unsure whether something is safe, take it out of service until an expert can evaluate it.
Day 8-9: Identify substitution opportunities. Can you use LED lights instead of incandescent? Can you rebuild heavy flats using lightweight materials? Research costs and present proposals to administration.
Day 10: Ban activities beyond your capability. Formally document that your program will not include performer flying, pyrotechnics, or weapons discharge. Communicate this to directors and students at the start of each production cycle.
Week 3: Engineering and Administrative Controls
Day 11-14: Install or schedule installation of engineering controls. Work with your facilities department to add guardrails, improve lighting, and upgrade electrical safety. Even if complete installation takes months, get projects started now.
Day 15-17: Write administrative procedures. Create your pre-show safety checklist, lockout/tagout policy, supervision requirements, and emergency response plan. Make them simple and specific.
Day 18-19: Schedule training. Arrange for adults to complete OSHA 10-hour training. Plan student safety orientation for the first week of production.
Day 20-21: Develop communication protocols. Teach your universal stop-work command. Establish how warnings will be given during technical rehearsals.
Week 4: PPE and Documentation
Day 22-23: Purchase necessary PPE: safety glasses, work gloves, hearing protection, and adequate first aid supplies. Label storage locations clearly.
Day 24-25: Create training documentation templates: sign-in sheets for safety instruction, equipment inspection logs, pre-show checklists, and incident report forms.
Day 26-28: Conduct your first safety training with students. Cover theater-specific hazards, demonstrate proper PPE use, and explain your new procedures.
Day 29-30: Review and adjust. What worked? What needs revision? Make your safety program a living document that evolves based on real-world experience.
Enforcement and Culture
The most detailed safety program fails if no one follows it. Establishing a culture where safety is non-negotiable requires consistent enforcement and positive reinforcement.
Set clear consequences. Students who repeatedly violate safety rules after training and warnings lose backstage privileges. This may seem harsh, but allowing unsafe behavior puts everyone at risk. One student’s shortcuts can injure classmates. Your job is to protect all students, even if it means benching someone who refuses to follow rules.
Model the behavior. If you do not wear safety glasses in the shop, students will not either. If you prop open exit doors or skip pre-show checks when running late, students learn that rules are optional. Your consistency teaches students that safety is not negotiable.
Recognize safe behavior. Publicly acknowledge students who identify hazards, suggest improvements, or demonstrate excellent safety practices. Create a “Safety Star” recognition program that highlights students who exemplify safe work habits. Positive reinforcement is more effective than punishment alone.
Involve students in solutions. When problems arise, ask students how they would address them using the hierarchy of controls. Can we eliminate this hazard? If not, what substitutions make sense? What engineering controls would help? This develops critical thinking skills and gives students ownership of the safety program.
Document everything. Keep records of all training, inspections, incidents, and near-misses. If a student is injured and parents or administrators ask what safety measures were in place, your documentation demonstrates your systematic approach and good-faith efforts. Records also help you identify patterns: if the same hazard causes multiple incidents, you need stronger controls.
Conclusion
High school theater programs enrich students’ lives by developing creativity, confidence, and collaboration skills. However, these benefits must never come at the cost of student safety. The hierarchy of controls provides a proven framework for systematically addressing backstage hazards, starting with the most effective measures and working down to less reliable options only when necessary.
Your responsibility extends beyond directing great shows. You are teaching students habits and attitudes that will follow them into college programs, community theaters, and professional careers. Students who learn to identify hazards, apply controls systematically, and refuse to compromise safety become the next generation of safety-conscious theater professionals.
Start today. Walk your theater with fresh eyes, looking for hazards you have accepted as “just how it is.” Challenge yourself: can this hazard be eliminated? If not, what substitution makes sense? What engineering controls would protect students automatically? With systematic application of the hierarchy of controls, you can create a program where students learn, grow, and create memorable performances without suffering preventable injuries.
Theater is a collaborative art form. Make safety your ensemble’s foundation, and every student goes home healthy at the end of the run.
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